THE UPRISING
OF
THE PEASANTS
By the end of the 18th century Europe was facing important constitutional changes, which coincided with the Order's influence being reduced to a role of impotence, that of being a simple spectator in the Mediterranean affairs. The knights no longer were expected - and certainly they had no more the means - of acting as a barrier to Islam.The Order was passing through a phase of self appraisal, the result of which was very disturbing.
While the Knights were not expected to be scholars, they must have been, nonetheless, influenced by public opinion then currently based on the works of English philosophers and French encyclopaedists.
Against a possible conception of being considered a Neutral International Force serving a Supernational Europe, independent of all kingdoms, there existed some doubts in the mind of younger Knights, especially among the French regarding their acknowledged notion of double allegiance: the Order and their country of origin.
In this respect the French considered themselves subjects foremost of their King and in 1789 when Louis XVI summoned the Third Estate (the commoners) and had to accept that they would only cooperate by joining the Notables (i.e. the Clergy and the Nobility) thus forming the National Assembly, the French Knights became eligible to membership through the three Estates. The Order in France contributed handsomely to finance the Swedish Ambassador's preparations for the Royal Family's flight from Paris which ended so disastrously at Varennes on 22nd lune 1791; and this participation could not be overlooked, though the new evolving policies were not without affecting the old principles.
Louis XVI was executed on 21st January 1793 and the Order held the usual remembrance service for the loss of a brother sovereign at the conventual church; the Grand Master connived even with the British for the recruitment of 482 Maltese sailors to serve at Toulon, the British were occupying this important port with the help of the royalists.
The liberation of Toulon owed much to the strategy of a young Corsican officer called Napoleon Bonaparte. Et a Malte il fallait vivre .... but it was extremely difficult for the Order to cover its expenses. Short of its rents in France where all its properties were nationalised, not much could be obtained from Spain, Portugal and Italy.
Also in 1793 all that remained of Poland passed mostly to Russia, and the Order had to provide asylum to many 'emigrés' families of Knights. The Order had no more resources, and the Maltese were reduced to a condition of servitude and degradation.
The people felt that the Order's way of government was oppressive and its absolute rule was greatly resented. The Nobles who never accepted the Order were resentful of the number of new titles that were created, reducing their influence. Even the Clergy was antagonistic and without a bishop from 1775 to 1797. An uprising of the priests led by Dun Gaetan Mannarino nearly succeeded in 1775.
In effect it was an oligarchy extremely despotic and arrogant, ran by an idle group of people completely ignoring their vows of chastity and obedience.
By 1796 two hundred and sixty six years of rule was nearing its end, except that it was decided to revive the friendly relations that existed under Catherine the Great, now that the Polish Priory (established in 1775) was part of the Russian Empire. Grant Master De Rohan appointed Bailiff Count Julius Litta as his delegate to Paul I, the new Tsar, to negotiate a deal.
The negotiations were short and favourable. In January 1797 the Tsar converted the Grand Priory of Poland into a Grand Priory of Russia of six commanderies, and assumed the titre of 'Protector of the Order'.
Unfortunately the despatch announcing this deal fell into the hands of General Bonaparte whose troops arrested the bearer at Ancona in February 1797. And it was the French press which published the news. A fine scoop!.
BONAPARTE ... a name that was acquiring celebrity in Europe. Since 1793, when his services as an Artillery Captain were recognised at Toulon, he had been rewarded with a promotion to Brigade General, and after saving the Government by supressing a dangerous riot in Paris in 1794, was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Republican Army in Italy.
Two years later, victory after victory on the battle fields he defeated Sardinia, Naples, Austria and by the treaty of Campo Fornio (1797) he brought the Italian campaign to a close, conquering Belgium, the Rhine Frontier, the Ioanian Islands, Venice, Istria and Dalmatia. England only remained undefeated ...... and he was only 28.
Bonaparte had no time to waste. He realised that to defeat England he had to attack her on her own battlefield, and that might be difficult. But why not attack England in her colonial empire? Not the West Indies, but India itself. He had dreamed of this project while he was still a Corsican. And a report from Charles Magellon, the Consul-General of the Republic in Alexandria, in which he set forth the ease with which Egypt could be conquered, had just been received. "Why do we not make ourselves masters of the Island of Malta...." added Bonaparte in a report to Talleyrand, the French Minster for Foreign Affairs, who agreed with him.
Poussielgue, Secretary of the French Legation, was sent to Malta to contact dissenters both among the Knights and the people, and Bonaparte continued to confiscate the Order's properties wherever they were found in the occupied zones The aim was to increase the discontent in Malta in retaliation for the pro-royalist policy of the Order, and to promote cordial relations with Austria and Russia, the two countries which Bonaparte wanted to prevent capturing the islands for their own interests before France could act in extending her influence in the Mediterranean.
So while officially the French Army of the West was maintained to prepare the invasion of Great Britain, vast preparations were undertaken at Toulon, Civita Vecchia and Genoa for an army towards a destination that was kept so secret that nobody knew where they were going until well after they had left the harbours in May 1798.
On 9th June 1798, the Army of the East (472 vessels carrying 38,000 men) appeared off Malta causing surprise and great panic. Hompesch, the new Grand Master, although aware of the preparations being taken on the continent, could not believe that Bonaparte would attack Malta. He refused to listen, and in any case 15,000 men would be required to man all the fortifications. He could only call on 362 Knights (50 of whom were old and 260 of whom were French - on whose loyalty he could not totally rely) and some 7000 men and sailors, disorganised, undisciplined and badly officered ready to believe any cry of treason and Jacobism. Most of the French Knights were reported infected by the new philosophy.
General Bonaparte introduced himself to the Grand Master by sending his A.D.C. Chief of Brigade Junot with a letter requesting permission to water the fleet. Hompesch called a meeting of the Council and the decision was to remind the General that an old statute prohibited entrance to any of the ports of Malta during hostilities between Christian nations, of more than four vessels at a time.
At daybreak of the 10th June, General Bonaparte decided to go in and take himself the water they refused to give him. He gave the command to land and his troops disembarked at several points without difficulty as the small groups of men manning the towers could only offer token resistance. Only the San Lucian tower at Marsaxlokk held out for 36 hours, and Fort Tigne garrisoned by the Cacciatori Maltesi under an Anglo-Bavarian Knight, repulsed twice the French attacks.
By 8 o'clock in the morning the whole littoral was in French hands, and by 12 o'clock the keys of Notabile were handed to General Vaubois.
Gozo, abandoned by their French Commander, sent a judge to arrange the terms of surrender.
The situation was grim, many of the French Knights felt some scruples about the dual loyalty (in effect 53 afterwards joined the expedition to Egypt). Maltese troops claimed treachery and intrigue within the Order, and there was a strong demand from the leaders of the Nobility for a suspension of hostilities.
Hompesch again called a meeting of the Council to which deputations from the Maltese Nation claimed admittance. Violent scenes followed and at the end an armistice for 24 hours was granted during which deputies had to be sent on board L'Orient to arrange for a capitulation. This was done and Bonaparte called it a Convention, which included eight articles almost all of them specifying financial terms for the Knights, confirming the free exercise of the Catholic religion and assuring retention of all properties and privileges the Maltese had acquired. All the cities and forts had to be handed over to the French troops.
The Convention was signed by Bonaparte, Bosredon Ransijat, five Maltese Deputies, the Ambassador of the King of the Two Sicilies and Chev. Felipe de Amati.
The reaction amongst the Maltese soldiers was hostile, but at the request of Bonaparte, Monsignor Labini intervened and all acts of hostility were avoided. So Bonaparte landed and walked into Valletta, refusing any way of transport.
Later on, whilst inspecting the military works of Valletta in the company of General Maximilien de Caffarelli du Falga (known in Egypt as Abouhashab, the general with the wooden leg), the latter remarked to Bonaparte that they were most fortunate in finding there was somebody within the City ready to open the gates for them.
The British Consul, William England, informed his Government on 30th June 1798 of his belief that the Maltese gave the island to the French to get rid of the Knights which probably was correct.
In any case within six days Bonaparte gave Malta a Constitution, introducing the Republican trilogy of Liberté, Egalite, Fraternité, abolished the nobility, replaced the University by a Central High School, added two battalions of a Garde Nationale to the existing Cacciatori and ordered sixty boys (aged 9 to 14) of wealthy families to be sent at their expense to Republican colleges in France.
He introduced civil marriages, compelled all non-Maltese clergymen (including members of female religious Orders) to leave within ten days, and reduced the activity of all conventual Orders to have only one convent per Order.
He decided that all articles in gold, silver and precious stones in churches and auberges were to be transferred to the Army Chest. All precious metal articles were melted and minted into coins to pay for the army of occupation. He thus confirmed the legend that 'Le bon Dieu créa Bonaparte, puis se reposa'.
He left Malta with his army (which then included his Legion Maltaise) with his fleet on 20th June, leaving General Vaubois in full charge of 3053 men and five companies of artillery men. However they were unaware that Nelson was looking for him everywhere. The British Admiral was in Alexandria two days before the arrival of Bonaparte, and finding that England had no more a Consulate in Egypt, continued his search elsewhere.
It so happened that for nearly 18 months the Mediterranean had, at that time, been clear of British ships. But early in 1798 the Admiralty arranged for Lord St. Vincent to send a reconnoitring squadron under Rear Admiral Horatio Nelson to collect information as they had grown anxious about the preparations being made at Toulon and other continental ports controlled by France.
En route to Toulon, Nelson was caught in a storm losing 8 days repairing his ships. When he could resume his duties he found that the French had already left. He immediately started the pursuit touching all possible ports of call, finally arriving at Naples on 13th June, when Sir William Hamilton informed him that Bonaparte had gone south, probably to Malta. Nelson sailed for the Strait of Messina, keeping close to the Sicilian shore in the hope of information, until the 22nd when the Captain of a Genoese vessel informed him that Malta had surrendered to the French on the 15th, and that Bonaparte had left a garrison and sailed again south. Nelson properly guessed that it might be to Egypt, but arrived there too early for his final meeting at Aboukir on Ist August when he destroyed the French Fleet.
Meanwhile in Malta, things were going from bad to worse.
Poverty at that time was almost general. It was recorded that the Capuchins offered 50 free meals three times a week. This charitable practice was followed by other monasteries all over the island, and explains one of the reasons why most Maltese were so ready to turn against the French in September 1798, following the closure of most monasteries on the island.
Vaubois tried to harmonise the people with the new state of affairs, and the Maltese were prepared to give a chance to the new order introduced by Bonaparte to develop into a democratic government.
Soon however they found out that promises were not kept. Family allowances to (...) the wives of the soldiers and sailors who followed Bonaparte were never paid, and the continued looting of churches and convents alienated even the most sympathetic supporters.
Nelson properly described the position that, as Baptism was no more used, Vaubois had sent for all the church plates.
News of Nelson's victory at Aboukir was received in Malta by the end of August. Three vessels, Guillaume Tell, Diane and Justice that had escaped, brought the news to Malta.
On 2nd September 1798, on bearing that the tapestry and valuables in the Carmelite Church at Notabile were going to be sold at auction, a hostile crowd surrounded the Church. The bells were rung as a signal for the people of Zebbug and Siggiewi to come to the rescue of the Old City, and when the commandant of the French garrison, Citizen Masson, rode out to disperse the crowd, he drew his sword and hit a boy who pelted him with stones. The crowd attacked him and broke into the house where he took refuge. He was thrown out of the window and death was instantaneous.
Messengers were despatched to all neighbouring villages, announcing the rebellion of the people of Rabat and asking for assistance. The response was immediate. Notary Emmanuel Vitale was appointed leader, and the crowd broke into the armouries of Zebbug and Attard to take possession of the arms.
Hearing the news, Vaubois closed the gates of Valletta and despatched 200 men to help the garrison of Notabile (The Old City). They were stopped near the aqueduct and their commander was mortally wounded.
Meanwhile, people of Rabat entered Notabile through a gate by the side of the Cathedral. The French garrison of 65 men surrendered to them, when four Maltese were attacked and killed. In revenge all the French troops were put to death.
At Cospicua the French appeared to hold on, and in Valletta the Maltese Garde Nationale was disarmed, while the Cacciatori Maltesi in the country joined the rebellion.
A National Assembly was formed on the 4th September with Manuel Vitale, Count Manduca, Marquis Depiro, Count Teuma, the battalion commanders from each village representing their people and, in addition to Canon Francesco Caruana, the General of the forces of Zebbug and Sigghiewi.
This assembly provided for all the affairs of the islands, both civil and military. Everywhere the white and red flag of Malta replaced the tricolore of the Republic
On the 5th September a message was drafted for the King of the Two Sicilies soliciting his help, requesting grain on credit, firearms and ammunition. It was to be delivered by Luigi Briffa and Francesco Farrugia who were also instructed to try to contact Admiral Nelson and deliver to him a request to blockade the Grand Harbour.
Both missions were accomplished but Nelson was not able to divert any of his ships to Malta. He directed the Portuguese, under Marquis de Nizza, to go to Malta with five ships. Within a few days Captain Saumarez joined the Portuguese for three days and delivered 1062 muskets and ammunition to the rebels. At their request he summoned Vaubois to surrender to which he replied with a firm NO and tried a sortie on Corradino, which proved futile with the loss of many soldiers on 6th October. He then started expelling Maltese civilians from Valletta to avoid the need to feed them.
Nelson arrived in Malta on 24th October and was preceded by Captain Alexander Ball, who was to play an important part in supporting and advising the Maltese and defending their rights whenever necessary.
At that time the Maltese under arms amounted to 3200 badly equipped with guns and having no bayonets. There were some 6000 to 7000 armed men, some with pikes, some with swords and others with cudgels.
They needed food, arms, ammunition and clothing. According to Canon Caruana 'disease and death are rife for the want of food. To have any trust in Sicily appears to be vain'. In this respect Nelson was very surprised that, in spite of all their promises and confirmations, the Neapolitan Government had not helped the Maltese either with men, officers or ammunition.
After more reminders guns and ammunition were received on 6th December. But after a while King Ferdinand refused not only to send more corn, but stopped even giving further supplies on credit. On one occasion Commodore Troubridge, desperate at the sight of the famine around, sent a ship of war into Girgentu, a Sicilian port, to seize and bring away to Malta two corn-laden vessels.
By November, 120 French soldiers attempted a second sortie but were driven back with the loss of 18 men. Reporting this incident to Nelson, Captain Ball said that the Maltese were very desirous of storming Valletta and in effect they tried an attack with the co-operation of a group of sympathisers inside the walls which unfortunately failed. The French shot 46 plotters including Dun Mikiel Xerri, and a Russian Corsair of Corsican origin Captain Guglielmo Lorenzi.
More tangible assistance from Britain and Sicily was required. After special requests from Captain Ball and a visit to Minorca by Admiral Nelson, General Fox, C in C Mediterranean British Forces, instructed Brigadier Graham, stationed at Messina, to transfer his troops, the 30th and 89th Regiments, to Malta, together with 500 English and Portuguese marines. They arrived on 9th December 1799, sixteen months after the Maltese took up arms against the French.
In addition to these 1300 men, 1200 Neapolitan troops disembarked on 15th February 1800, and Russia promised 2400 men that never came.
However sickness also spread amongst the English troops, and General Graham decided to raise a regular regiment of Maltese on British army pay, and issued the spirited appeal which is reproduced in this Newsletter. Within a few weeks Graham formed the Maltese Fencible Light Infantry, 800 men to be officered by the 30th and 89th Regiments.
The besieged French tried, and at times succeeded for some of their vessels to escape the blockade. More reinforcements (1500 men) arrived from Britain, and another contingent of Neapolitan troops joined them, to be followed by the 48th Regiment. Major General Henry Pigot became the Commanding Officer while Captain Ball looked after the civil administration of the islands.
Pigot offered Vaubois the possibility of surrendering, which was again refused. However, when two vessels sent from France to relieve his troops were captured, the French garrison was reduced to bread and water. A decision was taken to get the Diane and Justice out of the harbour - the latter escaped but the former was captured.
On the 2nd September 1800 Vaubois and his advisers decided to capitulate. Two days later a French officer was despatched from Valletta carrying a flag of truce with a letter to Pigot to send a representative to open negotiations. Pigot sent Graham and Captain Martin, R.N. causing a protest from Ball for his exclusion as the representative of the Maltese.
Though the Maltese formed a separate national corps who had besieged the French without the aid of any foreign troops, Graham feared that he would imperil the success of the negotiations if he insisted too much. To his credit however, he did try to get agreement from Vaubois for the Maltese to be represented by Ball at the signature, but the Frenchman categorically refused to deal with him or anybody else.
So, on the 5th September 1800, the capitulation document was signed and the British Fleet entered Grand Harbour.
When Ball drove into Valletta in State, with him were the Captain of the Rod, the Magistrates, the representatives of the villages, battalion commanders and all the constituted authorities. A Te Deum was intoned by Monsignor Labini and sung in St. John's Conventual Church. The next day the gates of the city were opened for the population to enter.
GO TO:
LEST WE FORGET.....
Copyright © Ivan Magri-Overend, President of THE ASSOCIATION OF MALTESE COMMUNITIES IN EGYPT (A.M.C.O.E. - Founded in Alexandria in 1854 & Transferred to London in 1956) incorporating THE FRIENDS OF MALTA GC (1992)
We would like to thank Mr Ivan Magri-Overend for his most kind permission to reproduce the above copyright material from the A.M.C.O.E. NEWSLETTER (Issue No. 70, pp 1-6) published in September 1997
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